Brunei
Culture
Name
Bruneian
Orientation
Identification. Brunei
Darussalam is a multiethnic society in which one ethnic group, the Barunay, has
a monopoly of political power. Variations in tradition among other ethnic
groups are not regional but cultural, social, and linguistic. Indigenous
Muslims usually are referred to as Brunei Malays even if they are not native
speakers of the Malay language.
Speculations about the etymology include derivations from the Malay
( baru nah ("there!"), a Sanskrit form, and the
Kelabit name for the Limbang River.
Location and Geography. The
original home of Brunei culture is the area around the capital, Bandar Seri
Begawan. Settlements of Barunay and Kadayan also are found along the coasts of
northern Sarawak and southwestern Sabah in Malaysia; Tutong and Belait
settlements are found exclusively in Brunei. Bisaya, Iban, and Penan people
also live in Sarawak and Dusun and Murut people in both Sarawak and Sabah.
Brunei Darussalam is 2,226 square miles (5,763 square kilometers), with
a coastline of about 100 miles (161 kilometers) on the South China Sea coast of
northwestern Borneo and along the western shores of the southernmost portion of
Brunei Bay. Brunei is completely surrounded by the Malaysian state of Sarawak.
The climate is equatorial with high temperatures, high humidity, and heavy
rainfall, although there is no distinct wet season. The country is divided into
three contiguous administrative districts—Brunei-Muara, Tutong, and Belait—with
a fourth, Temburong, separated by the Limbang Valley of Sarawak. The names of
the districts derive from their main rivers.
Approximately 75 percent of the country is forested, although the
exportation of whole logs has been banned. The country is covered with a wide
range of mangrove, heath, peat swamp, mixed dipterocarp, and montane forests.
There are numerous rivers, whose broad valleys contain most of the country's
settlements. The southern portion of Temburong is mountainous and sparsely
populated.
Demography. The
1998 population estimate was 323,600. Malays constitute about 67 percent of the
total; Chinese, 15 percent; other indigenous peoples (Iban, Dayak, and Kelabit,
all mainly from Sarawak), 6 percent, and others, 12 percent. In the late 1980s,
24,500 immigrants worked primarily in the petroleum industry. The population
has increased more than twelve-fold since the first decade of the twentieth
century. The distribution of population is Brunei-Muara, 66 percent; Belait, 20
percent; Tutong, 11 percent; and Temburong, 3 percent.
Linguistic Affiliation. Malay
is the official language, but English is widely used in commerce. The Brunei
dialect of Malay has many unique lexical items and a distinctive syntax. Malay
is in the Western Malayo-Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian language
family, which also includes the other languages spoken in Brunei. Various
Chinese languages, English, and Philippine and mainland south Asian languages
are spoken by guest workers. Many individuals are multilingual.
Symbolism. The
national flag is a yellow field of two trapeziums with a white diagonal
parallelogram stripe above a black diagonal parallelogram stripe, representing
the offices of the first vizier (a Muslim official), the Pengiran Bendahara,
and the third vizier, the Pengiran Pamancha. These were the only vizier offices
occupied in 1906, when the first British resident took up occupancy. The flag
is emblazoned in the center by the state crest in red, which was added in 1959.
The crest is composed of a flag and royal umbrella; four feathers symbolizing
the protection of justice, tranquillity, prosperity, and peace; two hands
representing the government's pledge to promote welfare, peace, and prosperity;
and a crescent symbolizing Islam and inscribed in Arabic "Always in
service with God's guidance"; with a scroll inscribed in Arabic
letters, Brunei Darussalam ("Brunei the Abode of
Peace").
History
and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. The
origins of the nation are only dimly known. Local traditions speak of a set of
ancient local Bornean culture heroes, including Hawang Halak Batatar, who
adopted Islam and became the first Muslim sultan of Brunei, Sultan Muhammad
(reigned 1405–1415), and his brother, Patih Barbai, who became the second
sultan, Sultan Ahmad (reigned 1415–1425). These heroes gave rise to the Barunay
nobles. Many Barunay aristocrats trace their origins to the Pagar Uyung area of
the Minangakabau highlands of Sumatra. The third sultan, Sharif Ali (reigned
1425–1433), who married a daughter of Sultan Ahmad, came from Arabia and was a
descendant of the Prophet Muhammad, as were all the following sultans.
Chinese documents record the ruler of Brunei sending a mission to the
emperor of China in 977 C.E. The Brunei Empire, stretching to Manila
and the southern Philippines and the coastal areas of western and northern
Borneo, reached its height in the sixteenth century; the nadir occurred in the
nineteenth century. Two ultimately unsuccessful Spanish invasions from Manila
occurred in 1578 and 1580. A twelve-year civil war occurred in 1661–1673.
Brunei became a British protected state in 1888 and became internally
self-governing after the promulgation of the constitution in 1959. After
achieving full independent sovereignty in 1984, Brunei joined the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Organization of Islamic Conference, and
the United Nations. In 1992, Brunei joined the Nonaligned Movements.
National Identity. In
1990, a new state ideology was launched to promote the unity of the diverse
groups within a plural society. Malayu Islam Beraja (MIB, or Malay Muslim
Monarchy) is based on the idea of Brunei as a traditional Malay state, a
long-established Islamic state, and a monarchy.
Ethnic Relations. All
the ethnic groups in the nation have always been under the authority and rule
of the sultan.
Urbanism,
Architecture, and the Use of Space
More than half the population lives in and around the capital. Other
major towns include Tutong Town, seat of Tutong District; Kuala Belait, seat of
Belait District; the small town of Bangar, seat of Temburong District; the
deep-water port Muara, which opened in 1973 in Brunei-Muara District; and
Seria, the center of the petroleum industry, in Belait District. There are also
suburban developments around the capital and rural villages. The past two
decades have seen a tremendous buildup around the capital. A network of roads
and highways connects settlements in the three contiguous districts; Temburong
is reached by boat from the capital area.
The architecture of the capital and its environs is dominated by the
gold-domed Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque (completed in 1958); the Nurul Iman
Palace (1983), the largest residential palace in the world; the Royal Regalia
Building (1992); the Royal Audience Hall (1968); and the Legislative Assembly
(1968). The Tomb of the Fifth sultan is two miles downstream from the capital.
The Royal Mausoleum has been used since 1786. The Hassanal Bolkiah National
Stadium is the site of many large public celebrations. Numerous parks and
recreation centers have been developed in the last decade.
Food
and Economy
Food in Daily Life. The
diet consists of rice and curries of vegetables, fish, shellfish, and fruits.
Curries of water buffalo, chicken, and beef are consumed on special occasions.
Game birds and animals (especially mouse deer, barking deer, and sambar) are
eaten in rural areas. Many kinds of Malay rice cakes and confections are also
eaten. Pork products are forbidden to Muslims. There is a wide range of
open-air markets and restaurants in the main towns. A popular local drink is
iced unripe coconut milk. Coffee is widely consumed; alcoholic drinks are
forbidden to Muslims.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At
large Malay wedding feasts and the forty-day funeral feast, rice and coconut
cream-based meat curries ( santan ) are served, often to a
hundred or more guests.
Basic Economy. Since
World War II, the state's economy has been based on the exportation of
petroleum and liquified natural gas (LNG), which account for about 36 percent
of the gross domestic product (GDP). Brunei is the third largest oil producer
in southeast Asia and the fourth largest producer of LNG in the world,
exporting mainly to Japan, the United States, and ASEAN countries. Brunei
produces only about 1 percent of its domestic needs for rice, 11 percent for
fruit, 65 percent for vegetables, and some livestock (cattle and water
buffalo). In early 1998, approximately 36,345 wage earners worked for the
government and 106,000 were in the private sector. In rural areas an unknown
number are still primarily subsistence producers. There are no sales, personal
income, or capital gains taxes, only a 30 percent tax on corporate income. The
workweek is Monday through Thursday and Saturday, with Friday and Sunday off.
The national currency is known as the Bruneian dollar.
Land Tenure and Property. Before
the land code of 1909, all land was either Crown Land, appanage land (held by
high ranking nobles who were awarded "sacred" titles by the sultan),
or private-heirloom land (held primarily by high-ranking nobles). Today any
land not under private title is state land. Only citizens are allowed to own
land. Rural villages have rights to state land for agricultural use.
Commercial Activities. Commerce
is in its infancy. Local industry includes a water-bottling plant, a soft drink
franchise, and garment companies. Foreign investment is encouraged but not
highly developed. Priority is given to ensuring the stability of the natural
environment, and all polluting industries are banned. Forest products and
deep-sea fishing are not open to foreign investment. An international airport
opened in 1974, and Royal Brunei Airlines began operation in 1975.
Major Industries. Commercial
production of oil from land wells began in 1929. In 1963, production from
offshore wells began. A major LNG production facility was completed in 1972.
Trade. The
Bruneian economy is largely supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas,
with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for more than 50 percent of
GDP. A 1990 study estimated that the commodities exported totaled approximately
$2.2 billion, with the main exports including crude oil, liquid natural gas and
petroleum. Brunei's main trading partners include Japan, the United Kingdom,
and South Korea. The same 1990 study accounted for $1.7 billion in imported
commodities. Brunei imports such goods as machinery and transport equipment,
food, and manufactured goods. Singapore, the United Kingdom, and Switzerland
are established as Brunei's main resources for these imported goods.
Social
Stratification
Classes and Castes. The
dominant ethnic group, the Barunay, is composed of four ranked ascribed social
classes: the nobles, the aristocrats, the ordinary people, and the slaves,
although slavery is no longer practiced. Because class membership is strictly
genealogical, a person assumes the class membership of his or her father and
cannot rise or fall into any other class. There are no castes. The Kadayan have
no social classes.
Symbols of Social Stratification. The
only outward signs of social stratification are the prename titles of respect
used in addressing or referring to nobles.
Political
Life
Government. Brunei
Darussalam is an absolute constitutional monarchy. There are no political
parties, elections, or legislature. Attempts to establish political parties in
1956 and 1985 did not succeed. In 1996, the first General Assembly of over a
thousand elected village and mukim leaders met to give input
to the Government. The first written constitution was promulgated in 1959,
naming the sultan head of state, assisted by five councils (Religious Council,
Privy Council, Council of Ministers, Legislative Council, and Council of
Succession), with internal self-government and defense and foreign relations
run by the United Kingdom. It was amended in 1971 to establish joint
Bruneian-British responsibility for defense; in 1984, a cabinet-style
government was introduced when Brunei resumed full sovereignty.
The sultan appoints judges to the Supreme Court, which consists of the
high court and the court of appeals, and the Subordinate Court, which consists
of the magistrate's courts. In 1991, an intermediate court was given civil and
criminal jurisdiction. Syariah courts deal with Islamic law.
Leadership and Political Officials. There
are two forms of government administration—a modern administrative bureaucracy
and a traditional system of ritual offices—which are awarded to nobles and
aristocrats by the sultan. Individuals can rise through the ranks in both
systems. The traditional system includes for the nobles five offices of vizier
and about sixty additional various offices, and for the aristocrats about
seventy-three offices of minister ( Pehin ). All occupants are
males. Not all these traditional offices are always occupied at any given time;
offices are not inherited on the death of their occupants but remain vacant
until a sultan appoints a new occupant.
Social Problems and Control. While
the incidence of child abuse appears to be low, it is punished severely. Spouse
abuse can be a cause for divorce. In general, Brunei is crime-free, especially
in terms of violent crime.
Military Activity. The
Royal Brunei Armed Forces (RBAF) was founded in 1961. The RBAF was restructured
in 1991 into land forces, an air force, a navy, support services, and a
training corps. Service in the RBAF is voluntary. The main purpose of the
military forces is defense.
Social
Welfare and Change Programs
Since 1955, citizens, permanent residents, and persons who have worked
in Brunei for thirty years have been entitled to a monthly pension. Elderly
persons with dependents below working age receive additional allowances.
Nongovernmental
Organizations and Other Associations
Muslims in Brunei may not belong to international service
organizations.
Gender
Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Women
have begun to assume positions of responsibility in government offices and
departments. While women can be in the armed forces, they may not serve in
combat.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Compared
to Islamic societies in the Middle East, women have very high status. Muslim
women are encouraged to wear the tudong , a traditional head
covering.
Marriage,
Family, and Kinship
Marriage. Usually
the parents of a young man arrange a marriage with the parents of a young
woman. For a Muslim, the spouse must also be Muslim; thus, individuals,
especially men, often convert to Islam in order to marry a Muslim. Interethnic
group marriages are not uncommon. There is considerable minor variation in
marriage ceremonies from group to group and within ethnic groups.
Domestic Unit. The
domestic unit may be either a nuclear family or an extended family. This
domestic arrangement is generated by a tradition in which a newly married
couple joins the household of the bride's parents. After some time, young
married couples may establish their own independent household.
Inheritance. Islamic
inheritance law applies to Muslims. For non-Muslims, traditional practices
apply.
Kin Groups. There
are no descent-based kin groups. Malay kinship terminology is generational,
with all "aunts" and "uncles" referred to as
"mother" and "father," and Hawaiian, with all
"cousins" referred to as "siblings." The kinship network of
relatives may be very wide in the case of the Kadayan, who treat a relative by
marriage the same as a blood relative, or narrower, in the case of the Barunay.
Socialization
Infant Care. Infants
are watched over constantly by their parents, who often take them to the tasks
in which they are engaged. Babies are fondly loved and appreciated by all.
Child Rearing and Education. Parents
give young children responsibility for the care of their infant siblings at an
early age, especially in rural areas.
Higher Education. The
Universiti Brunei Darussalam opened in 1985 and offers a number of
undergraduate degree programs, a few master's degrees, and a few certificate
programs. Approximately two thousands government scholarship students study
abroad, mainly in Commonwealth countries.
Etiquette
The following rules of etiquette are universal: pass items only with
the right hand; refuse food by touching the container with the right hand, never
verbally; use a thumb, never an index finger, to point; remove shoes whenever
entering a home or public building, especially a mosque; shake hands gently and
then gently touch the center of one's chest with the right hand afterward;
never address a person by name alone; never consume items until specifically
requested to do so; avoid public intersexual bodily contact; and never lose
one's temper.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. The
national religion is the Shafeite sect of Islam. Religious holidays have variable
dates that are set according to a lunar calendar. Early Ramadhan marks the
beginning of the holy fasting month; the Anniversary of the Al-Quran
commemorates the revelation of the Holy Book of Islam; Hari Raya Adilfitri or
Hari Raya Puasa celebrates the end of the fasting month; Hari Raya Aidiladha or
Hari Raya Haji celebrates the Haj or holy pilgrimage to Mecca; Hijrah
celebrates the journey of the Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu Alihi Wassalam from
Mecca to Medina; Mulaud, or the Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad, celebrates
the birth of the founder of Islam; and Israk Mikraj commemorates the ascendancy
of Muhammad into heaven.
Religious Practitioners. The
sultan is the head of the Islamic faith. For all Muslims, matters of marriage, divorce,
and the family as well as some sexual crimes are governed by Islamic law and
fall under the jurisdiction of the religious court system.
Rituals and Holy Places. Sixty
mosques are maintained by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Tombs of sultans
are often treated as shrines.
Medicine
and Health Care
Government health services are free for citizens, with minimal charges for
permanent residents and immigrant government employees and their dependents.
There are government hospitals in each of the four districts and two private
hospitals, with the main referral hospital in the capital. Rural villages are
served by scheduled Flying Medical Services by helicopter. Citizens are often
sent abroad for treatment at government expense.
Secular
Celebrations
The national secular holidays are New Year's Day, 1 January; National
Day, celebrating Brunei's resumption of full independent sovereignty in 1984,
23 February; Royal Brunei Armed Forces Day, marking the foundation day of the
RBAF in 1961, 31 May; the Birthday of His Majesty the Sultan Haji Hassanal
Bolkiah the Yang Dipertuan of Brunei Darussalam, 15 July; Christmas, 25
December; and Chinese New Year's Day, whose date is fixed by a lunar calendar.
The
Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. History
and local crafts are supported by a number of public institutions, including
the Royal Regalia Building (1992), the Brunei History Center (1982) and the
associated Churchill Memorial Museum, the Brunei Museum (1972), the Malay
Technology Museum (1988), the Arts and Handicraft Center, and the
Constitutional Museum.
Literature. The
Language and Literature Bureau promotes the development of literature and
folklore and publishes textbooks in Malay and English for use in primary and
secondary schools. A form of poetry known as sajak is popular
with schoolchildren. A number of local authors have become well known. The most
famous work of traditional literature is the epic poem Sya'ir Awang
Simawn , which recounts the exploits of the culture hero Simawn and
constitutes a traditional history of the sultanate.
Graphic Arts. Traditional
arts and crafts form a large segment of Brunei's cultural heritage. Boat
making, silver-smithing, bronze tooling, cloth weaving and basket making are
examples of the types of artistry celebrated and emulated in modern-day
culture.
The
State of the Physical and Social Sciences
The Hassanal Bolkiah Aquarium is in the capital. The Kuala Belalong
Field Studies Center, set up in 1991 under the joint sponsorship of the
University Brunei Darussalam's Department of Biology and the Brunei Shell
Petroleum Company, is located in the Temburong District. A department of
sociology and anthropology was opened at the University Brunei Darussalam in
1997.
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